Alligator/Crocodile

Broadly rounded snout distinguishes it from crocodiles. Fourth tooth on each side of lower jaw is hidden when mouth is closed. Young are black with yellowish cross-bars. Mature alligators are coal black when wet, dark gray when dry. Males are 11 to 12 feet long and weigh 450-550 pounds. Females are no longer than 9 feet and weigh about 160 pounds. Record length is 20 feet.
II. GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE AND HABITAT:
North Carolina to Florida Keys and west to central Texas. Lacking the salt-removing glands found in crocodiles they live in fresh water swamps and waterways only. When given protection, alligator populations rebound and soon reoccupy areas where they have long been absent.
III. DIET:
Large stomach. Carnivorous. Eats fish, snakes, frogs, turtles, Birds, and mammals such as muskrats, deer and cows. Big animals are dragged underwater and drowned and then torn to pieces. They are very efficient metabolically; even a big alligator can get by on about 50 pounds of food a year. Eats little or nothing from early October to late March. Feeds heavily during summer to store fat. Newborn starts feeding at once, eating small fishes and water insects.
IV. LIFE CYCLE/SOCIAL STRUCTURE:
Female builds nest of vegetable debris 4-7 feet in diameter and 2-3 feet high. Courtship begins in April. Mating takes place in water after courtship displays by males. One display, known as the "water dance" is characterized by "fizzing" water around a male's torso, produced by a loud subsonic call. Female constructs a nest of rotting vegetation and lays about 45 hard-shelled white eggs slightly larger than hen’s eggs from late May through June. Nine week incubation. Female guards nest until babies call, then tears the nest open and cracks unhatched eggs with her teeth. She takes them to water and often remains with them. Young are about 9 inches at hatching, weighing 2 ounces. Growth is rapid: one foot in length for each of the first six years. Young alligators are preyed upon by others of their kind and by large fish, turtles, snakes, herons, raccoons, and black bears. They probably live 50-60 years.
V. SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS:
All alligators bask, smaller ones most frequently. They hunt and feed at night. In winter, they bury themselves in mud, go into deep burrows or remain resting underwater with their nostrils above water and their breath keeping an air hole in the ice. Alligators can withstand cold better than crocodiles.
Internal temperature may drop to 5 deg C. (41 deg F) from a temperature usually around 33 deg C. (91 deg F).
Voice: American Alligators are the best vocalizers of the crocodilians. Adults have a throaty, bellowing roar with great carrying power. When alligators congregate in breeding groups in early spring, bellowing horuses can last from ten minutes to half an hour. Low growls are used during aggressive interactions. All sizes hiss when approached by an intruder. Female grunts like a pig in calling her young. Hatchlings and juveniles use a variety of grunts in many social situations. They also vocalize with infrasound, below the range of human hearing.
VI. INTERPRETIVE INFORMATION:
The name alligator comes from the Spanish EL lagarto which means "the lizard&". Muscles that close jaws are very strong, measured to be about 3.5 metric tons, but once shut a man can easily hold them closed with his bare hands. Alligators are grown on ranches in the U.S. as a commercial venture. How high an alligator floats and how fast it swims can act as social signals to others.
VII. STATUS IN WILD:
Crocodilians have had little competition in their niche as amphibious predator and have had 200 million years of success. However, overhunting by humans has caused some species to be in danger of extinction. The American Alligator was once considered endangered, but after protection populations have recovered and hunting is now permitted in some states. In 1989 this alligator was listed as "at present endangered".

Icterus in the Dog

What is icterus?Icterus is also known as jaundice or yellow jaundice. It means that a yellow pigment is found in the blood and in the tissues. It is most easily seen in the gingiva (gums), the sclerae (white part of the eyes), and the pinnae (ear flaps). If these tissues normally have a dark color, icterus will probably not be seen.What causes icterus?The causes of icterus fall into three major categories:
1. Destruction of red blood cells. The process of red cell destruction is known as hemolysis. It can occur within blood vessels (intravascular) or in the spleen and liver (extravascular).2. Liver disease. Any disease that causes destruction of liver cells or causes bile to become trapped in the liver can cause icterus.3. Obstruction of the bile duct. The bile duct carries an important fluid for digestion, bile, from the gall bladder to the small intestine. Obstruction can occur within the gall bladder or anywhere along the bile duct.
How is the exact cause determined?Within each category listed above are several possible causes. Determining the cause of icterus requires a series of tests. Some of these tests determine which category is involved. Once that is known, other tests are done to look for a specific disease which is leading to the icteric state.What tests determine hemolysis?Since hemolysis results in red blood cell destruction, determination of red blood cell numbers is one of the first tests performed on the icteric patient. There are three tests that may be used for this. The red blood cell count is an actual machine count of red blood cells. The packed cell volume (PCV) is a centrifuge-performed test that separates the red blood cells from the serum or plasma (the liquid parts of the blood). The hematocrit is another way to determine if there is a reduced number of red blood cells. All three of these tests are part of a complete blood count (CBC).What causes hemolysis?Hemolysis can be caused by toxic plants, or drugs, parasites on the red blood cells, heartworms, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Several tests are needed to determine which of these is the cause.What tests determine the presence of liver disease?A chemistry profile is performed on dogs with icterus. This is a group of 20-30 tests that are performed on a blood sample. The chemistry profile contains several tests that are specific for liver disease. The main ones are the alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and total bilirubin. If these tests are normal, and there is reason to suspect liver disease, a bile acid analysis is performed.Although each of these look at the liver from a slightly different perspective, ultimately they only determine that liver disease is occurring. None of them are able to determine the exact cause of the disease. To make that determination, a biopsy of the liver is necessary. This can be done in three ways.
1. Fine-needle aspirate. To perform this procedure, a small gauge needle is inserted through the skin into the liver. A syringe is used to aspirate some cells from the liver. The cells are placed on a glass slide, stained, and studied under a microscope. This is the least invasive and quickest test, but it has certain limitations. Because only a few cells are obtained, it is possible that a representative sample from the liver will not be obtained. It is also not possible to view the cells in their normal relationship to each other (i.e., tissue architecture). Some diseases can be diagnosed with this technique, and others cannot.2. Needle biopsy. This procedure is similar to the fine-needle aspirate except a much larger needle is used. This needle is able to recover a core of tissue, not just a few cells. The sample is fixed in formaldehyde and submitted to a pathologist for analysis. General anesthesia is required, but the dog is anesthetized for only a very short period of time. If it is done properly and with a little luck, this procedure will recover a very meaningful sample. The veterinarian cannot choose the exact site of the liver to biopsy because the liver is not visible. It is still possible to miss the abnormal tissue.3. Surgical wedge biopsy. The dog is placed under general anesthesia, and the abdomen is opened surgically. This permits direct visualization of the liver so the exact site for biopsy can be chosen. A piece of the liver is surgically removed using a scalpel. This approach gives the most reliable biopsy sample, but the stress of surgery and the expense are the greatest of all of the biopsy methods.
What causes liver disease?The most common causes of liver disease include bacterial infections, viral infections, toxic plants, chemicals, or drugs, cancer, autoimmune diseases, and certain breed-specific liver diseases.What tests determine bile duct obstruction?Dogs with obstructed bile ducts are usually extremely icteric. Their yellow color can often be seen readily in the skin, as well as the sclerae and gingiva. An evaluation of the gall bladder and bile duct is necessary to be sure that obstruction is present.An ultrasound examination is the most accurate non-invasive way to evaluate the gall bladder and bile duct. This technology uses sound waves to look at the liver, gall bladder, and bile duct. If this is not available, radiographs (x-rays) should be taken of the liver. Sometimes exploratory surgery is necessary to properly evaluate the dog for biliary obstruction.What causes bile duct obstruction?The most common causes of bile duct obstruction include pancreatitis, trauma, cancer, gall bladder stones, and severely thickened bile.How is icterus treated?Icterus is not a disease; it is a sign that disease is present. There is not a specific treatment for icterus. Icterus will resolve when the disease that causes it is cured.The basis for resolving icterus is to diagnose the underlying disease. When the proper testing is done, this is usually possible. Then, treatment can begin.

Giardia in Dogs

What are Giardia? Giardia are sometimes confused with worms because they invade the gastrointestinal tract and can cause diarrhea. They are not worms; instead, they are one-celled parasites classified as protozoa. Most dogs that are infected with Giardia do not have diarrhea or any other signs of illness. When the eggs (cysts) are found in the stool of a dog without diarrhea, they are generally considered a transient, insignificant finding. In puppies and debilitated adult dogs, they may cause severe, watery diarrhea that may be fatal. How did my dog get Giardia? A dog becomes infected with Giardia when he swallows the cyst stage of the parasite. Once inside the dog's intestine, the cyst goes through several stages of maturation. Eventually, the dog is able to pass infective cysts in the stool. These cysts lie in the environment and can infect other dogs. They may also be transmitted through drinking infected water. How is giardiasis diagnosed? Giardiasis is diagnosed by performing a microscopic examination of a stool sample. The cysts are quite small and usually require a special floatation medium for detection, so they are not normally found on routine fecal examinations. Occasionally, the parasites may be seen on a direct smear of the feces. A blood test is also available for detection of antigens (cell proteins) of Giardia in the blood. This test is probably more accurate than the stool exam, but it requires several days to get a result from the laboratory performing the test. How is giardiasis treated? The typical drug used to kill Giardia is metronidazole, an antibiotic-type drug. It is given for 5-7 days. Other drugs are also used if diarrhea and dehydration occur. If metronidazole is not effective, others are available. Can humans become infected with Giardia? Giardia can also cause diarrhea in humans. Environmental disinfection is very important. The use of chlorine bleach, one cup in a gallon (500 ml in 4 liters) of water, is effective if the surfaces and premises can be safely treated with it.

Outside Dogs

By Dennis Fetko, PhD2
Reprinted from August 1995 Whiskers & Wags
Halifax Humane Society Newsletter


I'm familiar with hundreds of dog breeds, but what's an outside dog?

Unless you're medically intolerant of the dog (and, therefore, can't take care of him in a medical emergency - so you shouldn't have the dog anyway), making a dog stay outside is a costly waste.

If he's for protection, what do you think I want to steal - your lawn? When you leave, do you put your valuables and your kids out in your yard? Just what is the dog protecting out there? Most dogs kept outside cause far more nuisance complaints from barking and escaping than any deterrent to intrusion.

Such complaints cause teasing, antagonism, release, and poisoning. With your dog a helpless victim, it's no laughing matter.

If I'm a crook and your dog is out, your fence protects ME, not your possessions or your dog. If I just open the gate, 9 out of 10 dogs will run off! I can safely shoot, stab, spear, poison, snare, strangle them, or dart through the fence; and you just lost your dog AND everything I steal!

If he's tied up and I keep out of reach, he's useless. He'll bark, but outside dogs bark so much, they're usually ignored. But let a dog hit the other side of a door or window I'm breaking into, and I'm GONE! I can't hurt the dog until he can hurt me, and nothing you own is worth my arm. Deterrence is effective protection.

Protection and aggression are not the same. Protection is defensive, reactive, often passive, and threatens or injures no one. Aggression is active, harmful and offensive, threatens all and benefits none. Yard dogs often develop far more aggression than protectivity because everyone who passes by or enters has already violated the territory that dog has marked dozens of times a day for years. That's not protection, it's not desirable and it overlooks two facts of life today:


First, property owners have implied social contracts with others in the community. Letter carriers, paper boys, delivery people, law enforcement, emergency medical personnel, meter readers and others are allowed near and at times on your property without your specific permission. And sure that ten-year-old was not supposed to jump your fence after his Frisbee; but neither you nor your dog are allowed to cause him injury if he does. Imagine this: A neighbor looks into your yard or window and sees you, your wife, or child laying on the floor in a pool of blood. They call 911 and your dog prevents paramedics from assisting! Should they shoot your dog or just let you die? Great choice.

Second, even if the intruder is a criminal, few places allow you or your dog to cause physical injury to prevent property loss. Convicted felons have sued the dog's owner from jail and won more in the suit than they ever could have stolen!
Appalling? True.

And don't be foolish enough to believe your homeowner's insurance will cover the loss. Now you see why many feel that an outside dog is a no-brainer.

The more a dog is outdoors, the less behavioral control you have. It's easier to solve four or five indoor problems than one outdoor problem. The reason is valid and simple: The more you control the stimuli that reaches your dog, the more you control the responses. You've got a lot more control over your living room than you do over your entire county! When your dog is bored, but teased by every dog, cat, bird, squirrel, motorcycle, paperboy, airplane, firecracker and backfiring truck in the county, OF COURSE he'll dig, chew, and bark. Would you sit still all day everyday? Do you want unnecessary medical and parasite fees, especially as the dog ages?

When a dog is alone indoors, you are still 30% there because your scent and things he associates with you constantly remind the dog of you and your training. When he's out, your dog is alone whether you're home or not. Do you really expect him to keep YOU in mind while the entire world teases, distracts and stimulates him?

The media is full of stories about the family dog saving everyone's life during a fire. How many people, including children, would be dead today if those dogs were kept outside? SURE - you ALWAYS get up to investigate every time your yard dog barks. And I've got this bridge...

An outdoor dog has an address, not a home. Dogs offer real value as companion animals. Stop behavior problems and start enjoying real protection and companionship. Bring your dogs inside.

Controlling Pulling, Lunging, Chasing, and Jumping Up

Why do dogs tend to pull, chase and forge ahead? Dogs tend to pull ahead and lunge forward for a number of reasons. Dogs that are particularly exploratory, playful, or investigative pull the guardians down the street as they investigate their environment or are attracted to appealing stimuli (e.g. children, other dogs). As you pull backwards in an attempt to restrain your dog, he/she resists further by pulling forward even harder, since most dogs tend to pull against pressure. Dogs that are aggressive to stimuli (e.g. children, other dogs), and those that have the urge to chase or heel (e.g. joggers, cyclists) are likely to pull ahead in an attempt to chase. In addition, dogs that are restricted or restrained by a leash may be more likely to exhibit defensive aggression. Those dogs that are fearful or otherwise reluctant to leave home may be pulling and forge ahead on their way back home. How can pulling and forging ahead be controlled? It is a shame when guardians are unable to engage in the simple joy of walking their dog due to extreme leash pulling. The dog should be taught through obedience training, lures and rewards to respond to the heel command. Training should begin in an environment where success can be ensured. Using a control mechanism (leash and collar, leash and head halter), and highly motivating rewards, the dog should first be taught to walk at the guardian’s side. During the first few training sessions distractions should be avoided so that the rewards and motivation keep the dog’s interest and attention. If the dog begins to pull ahead, pulling backwards on the leash and a neck collar, leads to resistance from the dog, causing the dog to lunge forward more intensely. It is best to take 1-2 steps at a time and keep your dog in the correct position, rather than trying to accomplish a long walk. As the dog learns where to be in relation to the guardian, gradually walk a few more steps. Set the dog up to succeed. This can often be accomplished using a food reward held at thigh level to keep the dog’s nose in position. The head halter is one of the best means of gaining immediate control. When the dog is wearing a head halter and pulls ahead, a pull on the leash will cause your dog’s head to turn toward you. Then by pulling upwards and forward, the dog will pull backwards into a sit. Quickly release tension and reward. In order to teach the dog to walk by your side, it is generally most successful if the dog is first taught to follow. First, teach the dog to follow you out the door. Have the dog sit and stay and then open the front door. If the dog begins to run out pull up and forward so that the dog returns to the sit, and release. Walk slowly forward so that you are between the dog and the door, slowly lengthening the leash while the dog remains in place but leaving no more than an inch or two of slack. Provided the dog does not forge ahead, step through the door and then allow the dog to follow up to (but not past) you. Proceed onto the porch and down onto the yard with the dog following. Any time the dog begins to step or forge past, the leash can be pulled up and forward so that the dog backs up, and released immediately when the dog is in place. Although the dog could be made to sit each time it pulls forward, the goal is to have the dog back up just far enough that it remains at your side. The tension on the leash is then released and the dog is encouraged to walk forward. In short, pulling tends leads to tension, while walking at your side earns release (ie a slack leash). If the dog puts on the brakes and will not follow, a tendency is to pull ahead, but, as mentioned, dogs tend to resist by pulling in the opposite direction. To get the dog up and following, loosen the slack on the lead and encourage the dog to follow verbally or with food prompts. Once you have the dog successfully heeling in the yard with no distractions, you can proceed to the front yard and the street while there are still no distractions. With practice, strong motivators and the use of the head halter, the dog can then gradually be walked in the presence of stimuli that might otherwise cause lunging and forging, such as other dogs, cyclists, or children playing. Another solution is to use a no pull harnesses. These devices fit around the dog’s body and around the forelegs so that when the dog forges ahead the forelegs and body can be controlled. Although these harnesses do not provide the level of control afforded by the head halter, compared to head halters, they require little or no training and do provide immediate control of pulling. My dog chases and I am worried he will get hurt. What can I do? Chasing and running after prey, nipping at heels and herding are normal dog behaviors. These behaviors are more strongly motivated in some breeds of dogs than others. In addition, some dogs may be motivated to chase intruders (people, other dogs) from their property and, when the intruders leave, the behavior may appear to the dog to have been successful. This usually results in the dog continuing in the chase behaviors. In order to control chase behaviors, it is necessary to train the dog to do something different than it was doing before. It is not enough to yell NO and punish the dog. This alone will not stop a behavior that has a strong motivation, but may cause the dog to be more anxious or fearful about the stimulus which would INCREASE the problem. First, let’s talk about prevention of chasing behaviors. Once you have witnessed the young dog engaging in an inappropriate chase, now is the time to start training. Get a leash on the dog and teach it to sit and stay. Then present the dog with the distraction that it would normally chase and reward the dog for good behavior. Remember, when off the leash the dog may revert to its old habits. Therefore, try to avoid those situations until you feel confident that the dog will behave. Once the dog has been engaging in chase behaviors for some time, it will be more difficult to stop the behavior. The very fact that the object the dog chases runs, is reinforcement enough. A program of desensitization and counter-conditioning is needed to correct the problem. This consists of teaching the dog to sit and stay for rewards while gradually introducing objects that the dog chases. It will be necessary to first start with objects the dog is unlikely to chase and progress to more tempting items. If the problem is severe, a consultation with a behaviorist may be necessary. Control with a head halter and leash often is the most practical and most successful at ensuring that the dog will sit and stay in the presence of the stimulus. The use of highly motivating rewards (favored food treats, favored toys) can also be used to lure the dog into a sit and given as a reward for staying. My dog charges the door and jumps on people who enter my home. What can I do? Another behavior that causes problems for guardians is door charging. Door charging is the behavior of the dog speeding to the door whenever anyone knocks or rings the bell. To deal with this problem start by teaching the dog to sit and stay for a food reward in the entry area. Gradually phase out food treats when the behavior is learned and can be reliably repeated. Next you may need to practice with family members entering the home. Finally, when the dog has mastered the task with people he knows, practice with visitors, keeping the dog on a leash and making it sit and stay. Again, a leash and head halter is an excellent way to control the dog and train it not to chase or jump up when people come to the door. Always require your dog to sit before it gets petted and you can go along way to eliminating jumping behavior. If the dog has never even practiced the task without distractions, how can you expect the dog to perform the task when visitors come over? If door charging behavior is coupled with aggression, you should seek the help of a behaviorist. How can I prevent my dog from jumping up on others and me? For many dogs, jumping up on people is part of their greeting routine. Often, guardians have tried to discourage this behavior using methods such as squeezing the front feet, stepping on the dog’s toes, or kneeing the dog in the chest. Yet the behavior continues. If that is the case with your dog, then it is important to think about what might be motivating the dog to jump up and what is the reinforcement for the behavior continuing. Usually the motivation for the jumping up behavior is to greet people. Many dogs like to greet face to face, like they do with their canine counterparts. People, however, find this objectionable. Correction must not be directed at punishing the problem, but rather finding a means of teaching the dog an appropriate greeting posture. This usually is a sit/stay, which can then be rewarded with food and attention. Once the dog has perfected this without people there and practiced it with family members, the dog is ready to try with visitors. Make the dog sit and stay while people come and hand the dog a treat. If the dog gets up, then put him back in the sit and try again. Often placing a treat jar by the front door with a bell on it will help. Once the dog associates the bell on the jar with a treat, and a treat with a sit/stay, the dog will be more likely to perform the task. Another way to train this behavior is to set up visitors to come to your home. Have the first person come to the door and instruct your dog to sit and stay. Then, let them in. Hopefully with some effort you will get your dog to continue to sit. Have the person enter, give a treat and sit down. After 5 minutes, have them leave out the back door, come to the front and enter again. This second entry should go easier as your dog will have just seen the person. If you can repeat this 4-6 times for each visitor, the dog will have plenty of opportunity to learn the new task. Once you understand the motivation, and have trained a new task, you need to be sure you have identified all the reinforcement for the behavior. If the dog succeeds in getting any attention for the jumping behavior, then the dog will continue to jump. Attention may be petting, pushing away (which resembles play behavior), and even mild reprimands can be reinforcing for a dog who really wants attention. To change this behavior you need to remove ALL reinforcement. This may mean that you do not look, speak, touch or interact with the dog IN ANY WAY when he jumps on you. Walk by the dog, give a command such as sit, but do not interact with the dog. Alternately, you could try punishment to see if you can disrupt the behavior just as it begins. To use punishment for jumping up, you need to be able to QUICKLY AND HUMANELY interrupt the behavior. This is often best done with some type of device that makes a loud noise. Shake cans, rape alarms, and air horns, all make loud noises that will often startle the dog. As soon as the dog hesitates, you need to give the dog an alternative command so that the dog can do the proper thing and then reward the dog with praise. So, as you administer the noise, you say SIT and when the dog sits you reward him with praise and food treats if available. Many dogs soon learn that to avoid the noise, they need to sit and will do so to greet you. Then have the person leave, and reenter the home, using the device and command if the dog does not immediately sit, and a good sit and reward as soon as the dog does sit. Continue to have the person leave and reenter until the dog sits for him reward without hesitating. Another method that is consistently successful at deterring and preventing the jumping up, is to leave a leash and head halter on the dog during greeting. All it takes is stepping on the leash or a quick sharp pull to prevent or disrupt the jumping up. Again, be certain to reward non-jumping behavior. Some people like to allow the dog to jump up on them at certain times. You must never allow the dog to choose the time. Ideally you should teach your dog to jump up on command such as "Give me a hug" or "Come up here." This way, you have the behavior under verbal control and you decide when the dog will be allowed to jump up.

Fears and Phobias of Animals and People

My dog seems to be afraid of people and or other animals-why might that be? There are many reasons that dogs can develop a fear of people. There may have been limited or minimal exposure to people and/or other animals when the dog was young. Socialization is an important aspect of raising a puppy. Without adequate, constant and positive interactions with people and other animals dogs may develop fears. In fact, fears may be very specific so that a dog that has been adequately socialized to a particular type of person such as adult males may show fear toward children, men, women, teenagers, or people of other races. Similarly, dogs that are well socialized to other dogs may show fear toward other animals. Dogs are impressionable and through the effect of "one trial learning" may take one experience that was intense or traumatic and generalize to many similar situations. This can occur for example with a bad experience with a small child which then makes the dog fearful of all small children, or a fight and subsequent injury from other dogs. Sometimes a number of unpleasant events associated with a person or animal can lead to increasing fear. For example, if a pet is punished (especially with a painful device such as a pinch or shock collar) when he is exposed to a person or other animal, he may begin to pair the stimulus (the person or other animal) with the unpleasant consequence (punishment). This is especially true with the use of a painful device such as a pinch or shock collar. Can I prevent fears from developing? Socialization is the cornerstone to raising a dog that is comfortable with people. Early, frequent, and pleasant encounters with people of all ages and types can help prevent fears later. This exposure should begin before 3 months of age and continue throughout the first year. In addition, the dog should be exposed to as many different environments, sights and sounds as possible so that he becomes accustomed early, before fears emerge. What signs might my dog show when she is afraid? When frightened, a dog may cower, look away, tuck his tail and perhaps tremble or pant. At other times the signs may be subtler. A dog may only duck his head and look away, and tolerate petting at first, but then snap. It is important to watch your dog for signs of uneasiness such as backing up, hiding behind you and licking of the lips. Naturally growling, or snarling would indicate aggression, but may also indicate fear. What information do I need to identify and treat my fearful pet? Usually a behavioral consultation is needed for dogs that are showing extreme fears and/or aggression. If the fears are mild, then guardian intervention may help and prevent them from progressing. It is important to identify what is the fearful stimulus. This is not always easy and needs to be very exact. What persons or animals is the dog afraid of and where does the fearful behavior occur? Often there are certain situations, people, and places, which provoke the behavior more than others. For treatment to be most successful, it is important to be able to place the fearful stimuli along a gradient from low to high. In other words, you want to identify those situations, people, places and animals that are likely to cause minimal fear as well as those situations, people, places and animals that are most likely to cause the fearful behaviors. Next, you need to also examine what factors may be reinforcing the behavior. Some guardians actually reward the fearful behavior by reassuring their pets with vocal intonations or body contact. Aggressive displays are a successful way of getting the fearful stimulus to leave and thus also reinforce the behaviors. Any ongoing interactions that are fear provoking need to be identified. This could be teasing behaviors, painful interactions including the use of punishment, or overwhelming stimuli. After I have identified the stimuli, what do I do next? Before a behavior modification program can begin, you need to be able to control and communicate with your dog. This will require some training. Often in addition, a head collar will be needed. Head collars allow control of the dog’s head and neck to ensure that the dog responds to the given command (sit, quiet, heel). To make the dog feel more secure by knowing who is the leader, orient the dog away from the stimulus, and prevent the dog from either causing injury or escaping. Next, teach your dog that when he sits and stays, he will receive a delicious food reward. The goal of this training is to allow the dog to assume a relaxed and happy body posture and facial expression on command. Once this is established, then food rewards are phased out. Lastly, begin counter-conditioning and desensitization to acclimate the dog to the stimuli that usually cause the fearful response. This needs to be done slowly. This is where the gradient that you established earlier becomes helpful. Start by exposing the dog to very low levels of the stimulus; in fact, ones that do not evoke fear. The dog is then rewarded for sitting quietly and calmly. Gradually, if the dog exhibits no fear, the stimulus intensity is increased. It is extremely important that this is done slowly. The goal is to reward good behavior, and teach the dog how to associate the once fearful stimulus with calmness and rewards. If the dog begins to show fear during training, he is progressing too fast and could be making the problem worse. Always set up the dog to succeed. The use of the leash and head collar can greatly improve the chances of success and, because of the additional control, will often help the guardian to succeed in getting the dog's attention and calming him down, faster than with commands and rewards alone. But my dog may still encounter the fearful stimulus when we are not in a training exercise. What should I do then? Each time the dog experiences the fearful stimulus and reacts with fear, the behavior is further aggravated. If possible, it is helpful to try and avoid the fear-producing stimulus. This may mean confining the dog when children visit or the house is full of strangers. Alternately, walks may need to be curtailed or scheduled at times when encounters with other people and animals can be minimized. If you do find yourself in a situation where the dog is responding fearfully, you should refrain from using reassuring vocal intonation and body contact. This does not "soothe the savage beast" but serves as reinforcement. As long as the dog is wearing a leash and head halter, he may be reoriented to face the guardian, respond to a pull and sit command, and learn to ignore or accept the approaching stimulus. Only if the dog cannot escape and can be made to calm down before the stimulus leaves, will the dog learn that the stimulus is not to be feared and will do no harm.

Gastrointestinal Endoscopy in Dogs

Your dog has been scheduled for an endoscopic examination. The purpose of this procedure is to make a diagnosis of the disease which has been causing your pet’s clinical signs of vomiting, diarrhea, or both. What is an endoscope and how is it used? An endoscope is a flexible tube that is inserted into either the stomach or the colon or both. As it passes toward the stomach, the esophagus is also examined. The endoscope permits viewing of the inside of these organs. What types of disease are diagnosed with an endoscopic examination? The endoscope allows full color viewing of the aforementioned organs. Areas of inflammation or ulceration are easily seen. Masses and strictures are also visible. Foreign bodies (bones, toys, rocks, coins, hair balls, etc.) may also be seen. Can viewing an abnormal area render a diagnosis? In most cases, no, though the endoscope has a tiny channel through which a biopsy instrument can be passed. Precise biopsies can be taken of areas of any of these organs that appear abnormal. What do veterinarians do if there are no abnormal areas? Many diseases cause changes that can only be detected by an inspection of the cells. Even if the organ appears normal, biopsies are taken. In most cases, biopsy of the stomach of a vomiting dog or of the colon of a dog with diarrhea will be very helpful in determining if disease is present. What if the problem is in the small intestine? The endoscope can be passed through the valve at the lower end of the stomach (pylorus) and into a short segment of the small intestine (duodenum) in some dogs. This depends on the size of the dog and the size of the endoscope. The vast majority of the small intestine is not accessible to endoscopy. Most diseases of the small intestine require other tests to be diagnosed. Can cancer be diagnosed with endoscopy? In many cases, yes. Some tumors do not affect the lining of the stomach or colon. The biopsy procedure only samples the lining (the mucosa), so it is possible to fail in detecting the presence of a tumor. What steps need to be taken to prepare for endoscopy? It is vital that the inspected organs be empty of food and water. If the stomach is to be examined, withholding food and water for 12 hours is generally sufficient. If the colon is to be examined, oral medication is begun 12-18 hours before the procedure to remove fecal material from the entire intestinal tract. Fasting for 12-18 hours is also vital so new fecal material does not form. On the morning of the procedure, one or more enemas are given to remove any remaining stool from the lower intestinal tract. Is anesthesia required? Yes. Passing an endoscope into a dog’s stomach or colon is not possible in an awake patient. Patient cooperation is vital since the equipment that is used costs several thousands of dollars and is quite fragile. Even for endoscopy of the colon, a short-acting anesthesia is essential. When will I know the results of the examination? Since the organs are viewed in real time, the result of what is seen is known immediately. The diagnosis is not available in many cases until the results of the pathologist’s study of the biopsies are reported. This will vary from a day to a week depending on the location of the pathologist and whether or not special tests are required on the tissue.

Pyometra in Dogs

What is pyometra?In its simplest terms, pyometra is an infection in the uterus. Most cases of pyometra are much more difficult to manage than a routine infection.Infection in the lining of the uterus is established as a result of hormonal changes. Following estrus (heat), progesterone levels remain elevated for 8-10 weeks and thicken the lining of the uterus in preparation for pregnancy. If pregnancy does not occur for several estrus cycles, the lining continues to increase in thickness until cysts form within it. The thickened, cystic lining secretes fluids that create an ideal environment in which bacteria can grow. Additionally, high progesterone levels inhibit the ability of the muscles in the wall of the uterus to contract.Are there other situations that cause the changes in the uterus?Yes. The use of progesterone-based drugs can do this. Estrogen will increase the effects of progesterone on the uterus. Drugs containing both hormones are used to treat certain conditions of the reproductive system.How do bacteria get into the uterus?The cervix is the gateway to the uterus. It remains tightly closed except during estrus. When it is open, bacteria that are normally found in the vagina can enter the uterus rather easily. If the uterus is normal, the environment is adverse to bacterial survival. When the uterine wall is thickened and cystic, perfect conditions exist for bacterial growth. IWhen these abnormal conditions exist, the muscles of the uterus cannot contract properly. This means that bacteria that enter the uterus cannot be expelled.When does it occur?Pyometra may occur in young to middle-aged dogs, though it is most common in older dogs. After many years of estrus cycles without pregnancy, the uterine wall undergoes the changes that promote this disease.The typical time for pyometra to occur is about 1-2 months following estrus.What are the clinical signs of a dog with pyometra?The clinical signs depend on whether or not the cervix is open. If it is open, pus will drain from the uterus through the vagina to the outside. It is often noted on the skin or hair under the tail or on bedding and furniture where the dog has laid. Fever, lethargy, anorexia, and depression may or may not be present.If the cervix is closed, pus that forms is not able to drain to the outside. It collects in the uterus causing distention of the abdomen. The bacteria release toxins which are absorbed into circulation These dogs often become severely ill very rapidly. They are anorectic, very listless, and very depressed. Vomiting or diarrhea may be present.Toxins from the bacteria affect the kidneys ability to retain fluid. Increased urine production occurs, and the dog drinks an excess of water. This occurs in both open- and closed-cervix pyometra.How is it diagnosed?Dogs that are seen early in the disease may have a slight vaginal discharge and show no other signs of illness. Most dogs with pyometra are not seen until later in the illness. A very ill female dog that is drinking an increased amount of water and has not been spayed is always suspected of having pyometra. This is especially true if there is a vaginal discharge or an enlarged abdomen.Dogs with pyometra have a marked elevation of the white blood cell count and often have an elevation of globulins (a type of protein produced by the immune system) in the blood. The specific gravity of the urine is very low due to the toxic effects of the bacteria on the kidneys. All of these abnormalities may be present in any dog with a major bacterial infection.If the cervix is closed, radiographs (x-rays) of the abdomen will often identify the enlarged uterus. If the cervix is open, there will often be such minimal uterine enlargement that the radiograph will not be conclusive. An ultrasound examination can also be helpful in identifying an enlarged uterus and differentiating that from a normal pregnancy.How is it treated?The preferred treatment is to surgically remove the uterus and ovaries. This is called an ovariohysterectomy (spay). Dogs diagnosed in the early stage of the disease are very good surgical candidates. The surgery is only slightly more complicated than a routine spay. Most dogs are diagnosed when they are quite ill so the surgery is not as routine as the same surgery in a healthy dog. Intravenous fluids are often needed before and after surgery. Antibiotics are given for 1-2 weeks.My dog is a valuable breeding bitch. Can anything else be done other than surgery?There is a medical approach to treating pyometra. Prostaglandins are a group of hormones that reduce the blood level of progesterone, relax and open the cervix, and contract the uterus to expel bacteria and pus. They can be used successfully to treat this disease, but they are not always successful and they have some important limitations.
1. They cause side-effects of restlessness, panting, vomiting, defecation, salivation, and abdominal pain. The side-effects occur within about 15 minutes of an injection and last for a few hours. They become progressively milder with each successive treatment and may be lessened by walking the dog for about 30 minutes following an injection.2. There is no clinical improvement for about 48 hours so dogs that are severely ill are poor candidates.3. Because they contract the uterus, it is possible for the uterus to rupture and spill infection into the abdominal cavity. This is most likely to happen when the cervix is closed.
There are some important statistics that you should know about this form of treatment:
1. The success rate for treating open-cervix pyometra is 75-90%.2. The success rate for treating closed-cervix pyometra is 25-40%.3. The rate of recurrence of the disease is 50-75%.4. The chances of subsequent successful breeding is 50-75%.
What happens if neither of the above treatments are given?The chance of successful treatment without surgery or prostaglandin treatment is extremely low. If treatment is not performed quickly, the toxic effects from the bacteria will be fatal. If the cervix is closed, it is also possible for the uterus to rupture, spilling the infection into the abdominal cavity. This will also be fatal. Spaying your dog will give her and you years of joyful companionship free from disease and pain.

Play and Exercise in Dogs

Why are play and exercise important? Play with guardians and with other dogs, not only provides the dog with some of its exercise requirements, but also helps to meet social needs. Insufficient exercise can contribute to problem behaviors including destructiveness (chewing and digging), investigative behavior (garbage raiding), hyperactivity, unruliness, excitability, attention-getting behaviors, and even some forms of barking. It is especially important to ensure that a dog’s need for exercise has been met prior to leaving the dog alone at home and prior to lengthy crating or confinement sessions. What are good ways to play with and exercise my dog? Taking your dog for a walk is a good way to accomplish exercise and can be enjoyable and healthy for you as well. From an early age you should acclimate your puppy to a collar and leash. A flat nylon or leather collar is fine. Keep your puppy away from stray dogs and neighborhood parks until all vaccinations are finished. Practice your walking skills in your own yard first. Put your puppy on leash, and with your voice and a small tug, or perhaps a food or toy reward as a prompt, encourage it to follow you. Reward the good behavior with praise. Keep initial walks short to encourage compliance. Playing with your pet is an enjoyable activity for both of you. Not only does the dog get exercise, but positive interactions take place. Training sessions are also an excellent way to gain guardian leadership and control, while providing interaction between you and your pet. How much exercise and play is appropriate? Selecting an appropriate amount and type of play and exercise, will depend firstly on the type of dog. Puppies and even adult dogs from breeds that have been bred for their stamina or to do "work" often have higher exercise requirements. For purebred dogs, consider their traditional work when deciding the type and amount of play to provide. For example, the retrieving breeds do best with lengthy games of fetch or Frisbee, while the sledding breeds might prefer pulling carts, or running or jogging with an active guardian. The length and type of play and exercise for your dog will depend on his behavioral requirements and health limitations. While some dogs may still be ready for more after a 5 mile jog and a game of fetch, others may be tired and satisfied after a short walk around the block. How can I keep my dog occupied when I am away? When you are out, or you are busy at home with other activities and responsibilities, it would be ideal for your dog to be relaxed and sleeping, but this will not always be the case. Exploring the environment, stealing food items, raiding garbage cans, chewing or digging, are just a few of the ways that dogs will find to keep themselves occupied. When you are certain that you have provided your dog with sufficient play and interactive exercise, and you must leave your dog alone, provide sufficient toys and distractions to keep your dog occupied and confine your pet to a safe, dog-proofed area. Some dogs do best when housed with another dog for play and companionship. Others prefer objects to chew, areas to dig, self feeding toys, or even a video to keep themselves occupied and busy while you are unavailable. What type of play should be avoided? Try to avoid games that pit your strength against your puppies or dogs. Tug-of-war games seem to be an enjoyable diversion for many puppies and they do help to direct chewing and biting toward an acceptable play object, rather than a guardian’s hands or clothing. On the other hand, some puppies get very excited, overly stimulated and become far too aggressive during tug-of-war games. A general rule of thumb for tug-of-war (or any other game for that matter) is to avoid it, unless you are the one to initiate the game, and can stop it as soon as the need arises. Teaching the dog to drop on command can help to ensure that you remain in control of object play sessions such as fetch and tug -of -war. Although games like chase are good exercise, they can often result in wild exuberant play that gets out of control. Again, a good rule of thumb is to only play these games, if you are the one to initiate the game, and are capable of stopping the game immediately should it get out of control. Many dogs can be taught to play Hide and Seek without becoming too excited. Other dogs like to search for their toys and bring them to you. How can I teach my dog to play fetch? Most young puppies, even those that do not have an inherent instinct to retrieve, can be taught how to play fetch from an early age. You will need to train your puppy to do three things; go get the toy, bring it back, and relinquish it to you so that you can throw it again. First, make the toy enticing. Try a squeaky toy or a ball. Toss the toy a short distance, 1-2 feet, and encourage your puppy to go to it. When he gets there, praise him. If he picks it up in his mouth, tell him "Good dog." Then move backwards a short way, clap your hands and entice your puppy to come towards you. All the while you should be encouraging verbally with a happy tone of voice and lots of praise. When your puppy returns to you, say Give It or Release and show another toy or even a small food treat. Most puppies will gladly give the toy to get the new toy or treat and at the same time will quickly learn the give or release command. By repeating the entire sequence of events again, the game of fetch itself, should soon be enough of a reward that food and toys will no longer be necessary to entice the puppy to give the toy. At the end of each fetch play session, have the puppy return the toy and give a toy or chew treat for the puppy to play with as a final reward for releasing the toy.